Quality Management In Health Care Research Paper

Quality Management In Health Care - Research Paper Example The growing predominance of chronic illness and the search for less costly delivery settings, post-acute and long-term mental and physical health care services are increasingly important. ( Huq & Martin, 2005) Expenditures for nursing homes and home health care have grown as a percentage of NHE from 8% or $48.9 billion in 1988, to 13.2% or $171.5 billion in 2000. Medication is one of the most important tools for the healthcare and psychological field in the United States used to help treat people with mental health problems and psychological abnormalities. (Carson, K. D., Carson, Roe, C. W., Birkenmeie & Phillips, J. C., 1999). During the past decade, mental health researchers and professionals have seen a rise in the number of prescriptions being given to mental health patients in the United States, especially to children. Keeping that in mind, it has been tried to find if overmedicate these mental health patients in the U.S? Nursing homes are the principal institutions for long-term care delivery to patients with mental health issues. In 2000, there were 17 thousand federally qualified nursing homes in the United States. Medicaid is the primary payer for nursing home services, accounting for 68% of nursing home patients in 1999. Medicare covers only a small percentage of nursing home services, accounting for 9% of patients in 1999. (Grol, R., 2001) In contrast to hospitals, two-thirds of all of the nursing homes are under private, for-profit ownership. Hospitals and inpatient care have long been a central feature of the U.S. health care services industry. (Huq, Z., & Martin, T., 2005) With the development of antibiotics and improved surgical techniques and anesthesia in the mid-20th century, the hospital became the hub for the practice of medicine, earning its designation as â€Å"the physician's workshop.†

Personal Development Plan Part 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Personal Development Plan Part 2 - Essay Example the same time, though, I realize that such output, while good, was not my best, and that I could have done better had I exercised proper time management instead of procrastinating. It is for this reason that I chose to work on my weaknesses as the focus of my personal development – in this case in particular, fixing my weaknesses will allow me to utilize my strengths to greater effect. Time management – a concept our parents and teachers have been beating us over the head with ever since elementary. Those of us fortunate (and diligent) enough to gain a good grasp of it early on usually end up becoming successful enough, while those who fail at it often end up failing at everything else. This is not too noticeable in elementary and high school, where students have their daily schedules predetermined – they know what time each subject is, which saves them the trouble of having to fix their schedule. In college, however, time management and/or the lack of it becomes more readily apparent. According to Penn State’s University Learning Center (2001), the greater freedom of movement in college means it falls down to the students themselves to manage their time as they please. Before discussing my time management issues, though, I feel it to be more important to first define what exactly time management is. According to Steve Pavlina (2008), time management boils down to deciding what one must do and then doing it. And while these steps may look simple enough to understand at first, another question immediately follows: what exactly should one do at a given moment? Opportunity costs also come into play as no matter what course of action one chooses, it will always involve forgoing the results that could have been gotten from the other options. Thus, as in business, it becomes necessary to choose the path with minimum cost, yet maximum satisfaction. In short, time management should focus on scheduling the best task for a given period of time. All other side

Speech Analysis Essay Example for Free

Speech Analysis Essay The speech about homelessness in the United States was a great one, but there were few things that needs to be improved. He needs to avoid speaking too fast, and the camera should be focused on the speaker alone. While giving a speech, it is very important for the speaker to present his points clearly and concisely. However, this speech can be improved if the presenter takes into consideration the speed of his speech. The speech was very good likewise the structure of his presentation. In addition, the way he presented himself, vocabulary used, and the way he organized his point were fantabulous. However, he ended his speech with a rhetorical question saying â€Å"Are we willing to change?† Beyond no reasonable doubt, the question he left was meant for no one to answer, but a change is required in order to counteract this question. Generally speaking, my overall grade for this speech is an A.

Consumer Demand for African Food in Liverpool

Consumer Demand for African Food in Liverpool Abstract The aim of this research is to observe and explain consumers preference for African food in Liverpool. By identifying the attitudes towards African food, evaluating the different factors that affect the availability and accessibility of these foods within the city, the effect of globalisation processes on food production to consumption. Three different theories have been used in this research, the Theory of Reason Action, Theory of Planned Behaviour, the Actor Network Theory and the theory of consumption. The global production network which seeks to identify the geographical spatiality involved in the network process of crossing African foods to UK. The actor-network theory is used to explain the different actors/actants in the global production network. The theories of reasoned action and theory of planned behaviour used in this research intends to explain consumer attitude, preference and behaviour towards African foods. It is however observed that African consumers tend to prefer African traditional meals but this is affected by cost, time and distance. A combination of qualitative and quantitative research method is used to better interpret the outcomes of the result. A total of 150 respondents where interviewed from various part of the city, including students, young adults family etc. Cutting across different age groups. Owners of African food stores and restaurants were interviewed using both structured and semi-structured interview. Individuals were selected randomly, to verify interest in African foods. Chapter 1 Introduction The importance of food as a necessity of life goes beyond physical nourishment. Anthropologist and sociologist emphasize that food practices are prime means through which social relationships are formed. (Johnston et al 2006:272). A familiar saying goes â€Å"we are what we eat†; food links us to the rituals and recipes of previous generations, creating a network between families, wider communities, and the global trading network of producers, distributors and consumers. More so, we are transported into the world of others as we experience the tastes of unknown tradition and cultures. Food choices make profound impact on the environment, health and welfare of others, challenging the ideas of tradition and identity. Travel and immigration have also resulted in the changing and shifting of traditions over the years. National identities have been created also by food traditions in distant lands among people of similar culture and background. Food is an indicator of cultural tradi tions, values, and how food traditions develop and evolve over space and time. Much talk of globalisation of foods have helped in shaping traditions, cultural diversity, social and political economy of places, (Bernstein et al 1990: 9, Tinker 1997: 137, 143) however, not all kinds of food are very welcomed in some places, though may not be stated categorically, it can be observed within cities and communities most probably as result of economic policies, cultural differences, international trading policies. Traditional food is a vital aspect of the African cultural heritage. The production processing sale and distribution of food products enhances cultural and ethnic coherence in communities. Consumers demand for safe and tasteful traditional food products (Cayot, 2007). However, there is also a demand for varieties of ethnic foods in multi-ethnic cities and community. The definition of food encompasses matters of moral and cultural significance, differentiating food products, providers and consumers (Cook et al 1996). Food has always had a long history of constructed associations which involves associations of places and people, and has been used as emblem of national, regional and local identities (Murcott 1995). Johnston et al claim that there is no single geographical literature on food with its own coherent themes and problematic, as the study of food is found in economic, political, cultural, social and biological aspects of geography. Therefore food matter does not sit within the confinement of conceptual and spatial boundaries (Johnston 2006: 272). Key issues surrounding topic The speed and reach of globalisation, travel and trade, bring all kinds of diverse foods together. This has however affected the definitions of particular national food culture (Murray). The influence of travel and migration can be seen on major streets and cities in United Kingdom with a rich mixture of nationalities, Indian curry houses, Jewish Bagel shops, Chinese buffets restaurant, Italian restaurant, Mexican among others. However, the presence of African food restaurants seems not a loud as the others considering the long standing history of Blacks in the city. The absence of physical representation of the African food culture around the city especially in everyday cultural display such as in food, as compared to the Asian presence of Chinese, Indian, Thai, Mexican cuisines and other ethnic group in Liverpool raises questions of demand and supply. The most important representation so far is the International Slavery museum at the docks and black slave sculptures that are displayed around historical places in the city, which are only representations of past history and geography and not a total representation of the African culture in recent times. Ethnic minority consumers quest for cultural identity is perceived in the food culture of the group in concern. Commercial globalisation has renewed interest in the relationship between culture and traditional norms and values (James 1890). This pursuit for identity among most migrants to the western world is pronounced in their choice of food (Bauman2000). This research seeks to observe trends in African consumer behaviour and attitude toward African food in United Kingdom, using Liverpool as a case study. In trying to observe and evaluate these trends, certain issues have provided a background for this study, one of which is the re-materializing of postcolonial geographies as it affects Africans in a foreign country. African migrants attitude and food choice behaviour have been affected by certain factors, government and institutional policies of cutting across various levels of trading activities. In determining a consumers preference towards food related behaviours, convenience, as a food attribute, has been described as being as important as taste, health and price (Candel, 2001). However, the availability and accessibility of food influence consumers preference as different values are considered in understanding why consumers make certain food choice. Food choice is a complex phenomenon with many interacting events determining which foods are eaten by the individual at a particular time and place. (Shepherd 1989.) The failure of African foods to cross over into United Kingdom mainstream market has pointed to issues of production, preservation and transportation of African foods into the United Kingdom. International trade policies and barriers by OECD countries, farm subsidies have all been major setbacks to the availability of African food stuff in the United Kingdom. Chapter 1 literature review: theories of consumer perception, Chapter 2 how do Africans perceive African foods and other foods, what do Africans think about the origin of their food and the patriotic nature of Africans towards their food, the first experience of food, generational experience of food. Chapter 3 methodology: theories of research methods. Chapter 4 Chapter 5 result and discussions: background history of black Liverpool, map and population census 2001 of Africans in Liverpool, identifying African business and Questionnaires and interview analysis, Chapter 6 trade relations between African countries and UK CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW This literature review looks at the studies that have been done in areas of food preference as it concerns culture, food identity, food preference and quality. The second section will review theories employed in the research and the importance of global production networks. Catherine Dolan and John Humphrey (2000) used Global commodity chain as networks where the decision-maker influences the output of chains and composition governance in their paper ‘governance and trade in fresh vegetables. Their study does not recognise the identity of commodity and consumer as a factor in buyer driven commodity, evaluating the geography of space. This research explores the ethnic identity of consumer as a major actor in global commodity chain networks. The buyers themselves being of African nationality purchase food stuff from the local food store or African food restaurants which receive their supplies from importers of African foods in major cities like London and Manchester. The connection therefore is from the African farmers who grow the foods, to major exporter or importer as the case maybe, to the shelves food store and tables of the restaurant then consumed by Africans who live several miles away from their home country. The cultural identity of the co nsumers becomes a vital connection to the market, because consumers also make demand on the desired food choice. Consumers access to these foods becomes important to the continuity of this trade. Ben Fine (1993) defines commodity chains as â€Å"the commodity-specific chain connecting production, distribution, marketing and consumption and material culture surrounding these elements†, in the study of systems of provision (fine 1993:600). This approach acknowledges the importance of commodities as a possibility of more balanced treatment of the relationship between production and consumption (Crewe 2000). Studies have explored how networks of embedded firms are offering the potential for the more equitable relations between retailer and suppliers, through the sharing of knowledge as market intelligence and labour. (Crewe 1996, Scott 1996, Crewe and Beaverstock 1998). Other study have considered the creative dimension of domestic consumption, and the ways in which consumer good s are actively appropriated in the everyday spaces of the home, however, Domosh examines the reclamation of the home and the domestic space as key consumption site. But it does not take into account the origin of the commodities and how it relates to space for consumption (Domosh 1998). Cook and Crang, explore ways in which geographical knowledge about products invoke a â€Å"double commodity fetishism†. This is the idea in which consumer knowledge are limited by spatially distanciated systems of provision. (Laying emphasis on geographical knowledge about widely sources of food commodities and process through which food is supplied). This work highlights cultural means of places and spaces. Cook and Crang (1996), further explores the global extensive networks and flows of food, people and culinary knowledge embedded in cosmopolitan London. Suggesting that â€Å"cultural mosaic† (Friedman, 1994), conceptualise cultural geographies as bounded cultural regions where constructed associations between food, places and peoples, associations epitomising the conceptions of national, regional and local cuisines. Also describes food as emblems and markers of national, regional and local identities (Murcott 1995). Cook et al (1998), in seeking the articulation of the geographies of culture looks at how figure displacement can be used to suggest process of food consumption are cast as local, the connections of food consumption to networks, which extend beyond delimiting boundaries of particular places. Again, in a closely related study, Cook reflects on the biography and geographies of food. A definition of food as having their own biographies, studies the connection of consumer knowledge about the geographical origins of the food they consume and what roles it plays in food choice and consumption (Cook et al 1998). He concludes in a suggestion that knowledge can potentially be a significant factor in food choice and preference. Much research has been done on Caribbean foods within and outside United Kingdom, probably due to the influx of Caribbean foods into United Kingdom market in the mid 1990s, when it became the ethnic cuisine to go mainstream after the Chinese, Indian and Tex Mex (Cook et al 2003). The complex history of the Caribbeans produced a regional cuisine which had overlapped with the Indian and Chinese foods that were on top of international cuisines in the United Kingdom. The region had also become tourist centres to Europeans and a large interest of the Caribbean lifestyle and delicacies reflected on the shelves of UK supermarkets, in addition to the projected images by celebrity chefs, and companies who increased the exports to satisfy the demand of this market in the mid nineties (Cook et al 2003). This also reflected in Caribbean centres established in major cities and streets in the UK. Cook and Harrison examine debate over the failure of Caribbean food to cross over into the UK mainstream. The paper review mosaic and theories of culture as fundamental difference between a white â€Å"mainstream† and black â€Å"ethnic other† as part problems of this failure. (Cook and Harrison 2003). Understandings of postcolonial geographies of material culture and its contributions to the undermining of, and resistance to forms of colonial dominations that persist in contemporary global capitalist relationships as can be found in food trade relations between the ‘third world and the ‘west. The study uses the example of the corporate history of Grace, Kennedy and Co, a company that preferred to cater for the needs of UK ethnic minority and the third world consumers, instead of prioritising cross over in to UK mainstream market. Friedberg research of modern historical geography of food in Burkina Faso shows how agricultural policies, dietary preferences health concerns, helped to transform regional diet, landscape and economy, resulting to temporal and spatial patterns of daily life in Burkina Faso. The study observes the incorporation of Burkina Faso into the globalised market economy as a result of luxury food (French beans), not leaving out the expectation of food quality safety standards (Friedberg 2003). The study also observes the changing geographies of the meaning of food, suggesting how historical study of food consumption takes place outside formal market economy. Gaps in current research Studies on firms by management oriented researchers have been focused more on companies in developed economies, central and Eastern Europe, small and local food production firms in Africa and their business counterparts even in developed economies have received less attention in the study of economic development. Past researches remained outside social science mainstream therefore have not been influenced by general discourses especially in the field of economic geography. Feminist researchers who have done research in the developing world have only concentrated on gender-related issues in the developing nations rather than with broader questions of small, local and industrial organisations and economic development (Henderson et al 2002:437). The major issues of trade liberalization have affected the cross over of African food and with the increase of safety standard procedures by the UK govt. The challenges of small business and the cost of food as also other major issues that will be discussed. In examining the geographical knowledge about food, actors associated with food, which involves location and situatedness of food, the networks and flows of food and people are major debates around the accessibility of these foods. According to Cook et al the long-running history of interconnections between people and places; and the increasing consciousness of the compression of the economic, political, cultural world, and the production of the world as a single place are two major contentions of globalisation debates (Cook et al 1996). London is said to be promoted as a space of ‘global post-modern (Hall, 1991: 32) by the staging and reconstruction of cultural difference in ‘globalisation diversity (Pieterse, 1995:45 as cited Cook 1996), arguably, Liverpool being proclaimed as the ‘world in one city though with characteristic history of local culture is yet to produce a matching representation of modern diversity of the African culture with the exception of the In ternational Slavery museum. Post colonial issues around African cultural heritage in Liverpool will enhance globalisation diversity as represented in food, arts and cultural of the African food biography and origin. Global Production networks Global production networks emphasize the need to refocus attention on the social circumstances under which commodities are produced and consumed† (Dickens et al 2002 pg 444). It takes into account, the process of production-(can be from the farm stage, harvest, labour technology, processing in Africa, transportation, UK standardization, repackaging, supply and distribution,) which do not always follow a chain link but a complex network process, over time and space and distance to consumption. The GPN framework allows for a greater complexity and geographical variation in producer-consumer relation, this in turn enhances the ability to reveal how certain key knowledge ‘circulate between producers, consumers and intermediaries. It also reveals complex social geographies as agents located in different places can be seen to combine to influence the production process (Henderson et al 2002:445). In all, this research seeks to answer the following questions: †¢ Research Questions? To what extent does the demand of African food affect its availability? What impact does African food trade make on the supply of these foods? How have African food stores and restaurants faired with migration of Africans in Liverpool? Preference is described by Babicz-Zielinska as â€Å"a general predisposition for a particular food, independent of the eating situation, and expressed by degree of liking or disliking of the food, desired food frequency or fraction of subjects selecting the food as a response to its name†(Babicz-Zielinska 1999:139). The choice of food depends on factors that influence human behaviour, which in turn affects the rejection of some food and acceptance of others. A classification based on current food-choice models is used to explain certain attributes of food choice is made by Babicz-Zielinska (Babicz-Zielinska 1999:138) 1. Production-related factors- which could be physical and chemical properties of food, sensory attributes, functional features(labelling, availability) nutritional value; or 2. Consumer-related factors- personal features, (age, gender, psychological factors, experience, personality), physiological factors (health) or 3. Environment-related factors- economic factors (price and income), cultural factors (beliefs, social factors- social status and fashion. Consumer-related factors and environment-related factors will be area of concern in this research. Factors of food choice survey was conducted in European Community EC countries, and it showed that quality/freshness, taste, selecting a healthy diet, price, family preferences and habits belong to the most important choice factors, (Lennernas et al 1997) Behavioural research methodologies are usually used to ascertain the underlying factors that determine food-related behaviour, reason being that food choice and consumption are natural and integrated part of human behaviour (Mahon et al 2006:474). The theory of reasoned action The theory of reasoned action has received attention within the field of consumer behaviour. (Sheppard et al 1988). The theory of reasoned action studies attitude and behaviour (Ajzen Fishbein 1980). It observes behavioural intention, attitude and subjective norm. According to Fishbein and Ajzen, a persons behaviour is guided by the persons attitude towards the behaviour and the subjective norm. For example, Africans tend to eat hot, spicy and tasty food, so when they find themselves away from ‘home, they look for their regular food, or something very close to the kind of food they have been used to, the alternative in this case could mean the Caribbean cuisine which also has its origin from African foods, or the Spanish or Mexican spicy foods as found in UK. However the cost also plays a determining role in making food choice, this shall be explained in detail in later chapter. Miller 2005 defines attitude, subjective norm, and behavioural intentions as the 3 components of the theory of reasoned action. Attitude: The sum of beliefs about a particular behaviour weighted by evaluation of these beliefs. Subjective norms. This looks at the influence of people in ones social environment on his/her behavioural intentions. Behavioural intention. This is a function of both attitudes towards behaviour and subjective norms towards that behaviour which has been found to predict actual behaviour. The theory of planned behaviour is adopted to explain consumer behaviour towards African food. The other alternative in this research is the British food, considering different factors that affect the choice of food. Human behaviour is explained and predicted by the theory of planned behaviour in understanding beliefs and attitudes. Ajzen et al 1986, explains that TPB is an extension of the TRA. The theory of planned behaviour was developed as a third predictor of behaviour, perceived behavioural control, (Mahon et al 2006:475). Perceived behavioural control reflects beliefs regarding the access to resources and opportunities needed to perform a behaviour (Chiou, 1998 as cited in Mahon 2006 pg 475). The availability of resources needed to engage in the behaviour such as money, time and other resources, the focal person self confidence in their ability to conduct the behaviour are two major reflections of the theory of planned behaviour. The theory of consumer preference. Consumers have set of preferences which are dependent upon individual tastes, education, culture and other factors, apart from the economic factor. These factors are measured for particular goods in terms of the real opportunity cost to the consumer who purchases and consumes the goods. Consumer level of satisfaction of a particular kind of food is determined by what the consumer defines as â€Å"satisfaction†. However, consumers are constrained in their choices of foods by income, accessibility of goods and also the price that the consumer is willing to pay for his food. Consumer preferences are defined as the subjective taste as measured by utility-(where utility is the satisfaction that a consumer derives from the consumption of a good) of various bundles of goods. Preferences help consumer to prioritize bundles of goods according to the levels of utility that they give the consumer. However, these preferences are not dependent on income and prices only. The ability for a consumer to purchase certain kind of food does not always determine a consumers like or dislike over another food. For example, an African consumer in Liverpool can have a preference for African foods over British foods but only has the financial means to buy British meals more often. There are certain assumptions of consumers preference theory, which will be further looked into, the assumption of decisiveness, consistency, non-satiation, convexity. Actor network theory. ANT, a social theory pioneered by Michel Callon (1986), Bruno Latour (1987) and John Law (1987), conceptualize social interactions in terms of networks. This includes the material environment and human causes. The concept of ANT acknowledges the importance of both material and human factors in networks. The theory conveys the idea that the actor does not act ‘on his own but only under the influence of complex network of material and human influences. For example, the process involved in making African foods available is not just caused human factors, but also by production, technology, society, extended politics of trade and culture, all affecting the accessibility and availability of the foods. According to Callon (1986) materials causes as well as human actors may be determinants of the social interactions and outcomes (Callon 1986). According to Henderson 2002, ANT emphasize the relationality of object and agency in heterogeneous networks, in other words, entities in network s are shaped by and can only be understood through their relations and connectivity to other entities(Law, 1999:4 as cited in Henderson et al 2002). Again, space and distance are observed as ‘spatial fields and relational scopes of influence, power and connectivity (Harvey, 1969; Murdoch 1998 as cited in Henderson et al 2002). According to Nancy Vanhouse, ANT has to approaches, ‘follow the actor, through interviews and ethnographic research and through examining inscriptions. Inscriptions including texts, but also images of many sorts, databases, and the like are central to knowledge work. Some (e.g., Latour and Woolgar, 1991; Callon, Law, and Rip, 1986) say that texts (including journal articles, conference papers and presentations, grant proposals, and patents) are among the major, if not the major, products of scientific work. Inscriptions make action at a distance possible by stabilizing work in such a way that it can travel across space and time and be combined with other work. Texts are also central to the process of gaining credibility. They carry work to other people and institutions. They attempt to present work in such a way that its meaning and significance are irrefutable. And texts are where authors establish equivalences among problems, which Callon et al. (1986) identifies as a major strategy of enrolling others. An important part of the standard journal article or grant application, for example, is to say, in essence, If you are interested in X (major issue) you must be interested in Y, which is the topic of the work reported/proposed here. References Latour, B. and Woolgar, S. (1991). Laboratory life: the construction of scientific facts, intro by Salk, J., Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press Callon, Michel, John Law, and Arie Rip, eds. Mapping the Dynamics of Science and Technology: Sociology of Science in the Real World. London: Macmillan Press, 1986. Actor network theory has become very helpful in understanding connections between places and space. Its insistency on non human factor in network production Supply chain and bottleneck bureaucracy of the supply of food products from Africa into the UK makes it more difficult for the availability of this food. This furthermore widens the distance/gap between consumers and suppliers/retailers. The length of this chain affects. The quality assurance schemes, production and manufacturing to retailers protocols and the application of quality management system and standard such as HACCP and ISO series are various ways of cutting supplies. Bottlenecks of food quality and safety standards in food processing and distribution. The HACCP systems are used in specific export sectors in Africa, an example is the EU quality standard for fish in Uganda is based on EU directive 91/493/EEC and on Codex Alimentarius (Trienekens et al 2008:116) covering areas of microbiology level, pesticides residues, heavy metals, effluents, Good manufacturing practices (processing stage) and HACCP (processing stage) (Ssemwanga, 2003 as cited in Trienekens et al 2008:116). Kenya adheres to UK food and safety Act of 1990, more so testing laboratories are accredited to ISO 17025; 2000 by United Kingdom Accreditation services (UKAS) (Kari 2003), the high deportation rate of this products on western markets shows the fragility of the systems. As pesticides residues are discovered in the product. Other systems used for processors and packers of fish for exports are GMP, ISO 90002. The proliferation of standards by western markets creates a barrier for the application of standards by developing countries producers. The lack of enabling environment in which infrastructure facilities are absent in African countries is also a major setback. African countries are still discovering quality and safety of food as important condition for international food trade (Trieneken et al 2008:117). Building of facilities, government structures to improve and ensure quality and safety of products are still key agenda of attention. The importance of transportation, preservation (cooled system of transport) and storage are very vital to international trade. African countries are still at the phase of establishing the right conditions to enforce food quality and safety of the other products. According to Trieneken et al- many developing countries do not have skilled labour and laboratory facilities, this however limits good- quality management, making difficult. Small and medium size business, from developing countries find difficult or almost impossible to comply with standard required in western markets (Dinham, 2003, Unnevehr, 2002). Due to barriers created by SPS and TBT in exporting foods, from developing countries do not have the adequate information and most likely unaware of specific demand of western standards for trade. The heterogeneous standard in developed economies also poses a problem, as continues differ to country and market also differ. The cost of certification is too much for develop countries to bear. Most African food products are unable to adapt to the rigorous requirements of modern supply chain, either through scale enterprise or lack of knowledge or financial constraints, become non-competitive. The myriad of innovations and development has made the process of food supply chain increase in productivity. The combine technology of accurate weighing, refrigeration controlled atmospheric bacterial growth inhibition, pasteurisation, micro-element pollutant detection, bar-coding, electronic recognition of packaging, the use of stabilizers etc, has also contributed to the difficulty in having African food cross over, as most business may not be financially equipped enough for the volume of the trading. Christopher (1999) notes that the supply chain management evolves around the partnership developed in the chain and is supported by information technology applications that co-ordinate information dissemination and sharing amongst the chain members. This research has revealed that most home cooked food are prepared under high hygienic conditions, as cooking is monitored by consumer themselves problems with calories consumptions that affect the health of consumer is also under check, compared to the perceptions about eating fast food at convenience KFC and MacDonalds. This is one reason for the preference of African food among black consumer. One of the major problems of availability of African foods in UK is the problem of access into the country. Developing countries especially in Africa find it difficult to meet the food safety standards imposed by the UK/developing countries. Food safety standards which were originally set up to keep food for quality and safe consumption, by government of different countries are being used as trade impeding protectionist tools.(Jongwanich 2009:1). Food safety standards are usually to the disadvantage of developing countries, due to their limits capacity to access and use technology and information. International trade negotiations have experience setbacks for developing countries in recent years due to a demand for more stringent SPS in developed countries, which is as a result of increase in health consciousness and rising incomes. Before now, tariffs and quantitative restrictions are the trade barriers and impediments that affect export from developing countries to developed countri es, but in recent times, food safety standards have become tool for protectionist to block trade(Jongwanich 2009: Consumer Demand for African Food in Liverpool Consumer Demand for African Food in Liverpool Abstract The aim of this research is to observe and explain consumers preference for African food in Liverpool. By identifying the attitudes towards African food, evaluating the different factors that affect the availability and accessibility of these foods within the city, the effect of globalisation processes on food production to consumption. Three different theories have been used in this research, the Theory of Reason Action, Theory of Planned Behaviour, the Actor Network Theory and the theory of consumption. The global production network which seeks to identify the geographical spatiality involved in the network process of crossing African foods to UK. The actor-network theory is used to explain the different actors/actants in the global production network. The theories of reasoned action and theory of planned behaviour used in this research intends to explain consumer attitude, preference and behaviour towards African foods. It is however observed that African consumers tend to prefer African traditional meals but this is affected by cost, time and distance. A combination of qualitative and quantitative research method is used to better interpret the outcomes of the result. A total of 150 respondents where interviewed from various part of the city, including students, young adults family etc. Cutting across different age groups. Owners of African food stores and restaurants were interviewed using both structured and semi-structured interview. Individuals were selected randomly, to verify interest in African foods. Chapter 1 Introduction The importance of food as a necessity of life goes beyond physical nourishment. Anthropologist and sociologist emphasize that food practices are prime means through which social relationships are formed. (Johnston et al 2006:272). A familiar saying goes â€Å"we are what we eat†; food links us to the rituals and recipes of previous generations, creating a network between families, wider communities, and the global trading network of producers, distributors and consumers. More so, we are transported into the world of others as we experience the tastes of unknown tradition and cultures. Food choices make profound impact on the environment, health and welfare of others, challenging the ideas of tradition and identity. Travel and immigration have also resulted in the changing and shifting of traditions over the years. National identities have been created also by food traditions in distant lands among people of similar culture and background. Food is an indicator of cultural tradi tions, values, and how food traditions develop and evolve over space and time. Much talk of globalisation of foods have helped in shaping traditions, cultural diversity, social and political economy of places, (Bernstein et al 1990: 9, Tinker 1997: 137, 143) however, not all kinds of food are very welcomed in some places, though may not be stated categorically, it can be observed within cities and communities most probably as result of economic policies, cultural differences, international trading policies. Traditional food is a vital aspect of the African cultural heritage. The production processing sale and distribution of food products enhances cultural and ethnic coherence in communities. Consumers demand for safe and tasteful traditional food products (Cayot, 2007). However, there is also a demand for varieties of ethnic foods in multi-ethnic cities and community. The definition of food encompasses matters of moral and cultural significance, differentiating food products, providers and consumers (Cook et al 1996). Food has always had a long history of constructed associations which involves associations of places and people, and has been used as emblem of national, regional and local identities (Murcott 1995). Johnston et al claim that there is no single geographical literature on food with its own coherent themes and problematic, as the study of food is found in economic, political, cultural, social and biological aspects of geography. Therefore food matter does not sit within the confinement of conceptual and spatial boundaries (Johnston 2006: 272). Key issues surrounding topic The speed and reach of globalisation, travel and trade, bring all kinds of diverse foods together. This has however affected the definitions of particular national food culture (Murray). The influence of travel and migration can be seen on major streets and cities in United Kingdom with a rich mixture of nationalities, Indian curry houses, Jewish Bagel shops, Chinese buffets restaurant, Italian restaurant, Mexican among others. However, the presence of African food restaurants seems not a loud as the others considering the long standing history of Blacks in the city. The absence of physical representation of the African food culture around the city especially in everyday cultural display such as in food, as compared to the Asian presence of Chinese, Indian, Thai, Mexican cuisines and other ethnic group in Liverpool raises questions of demand and supply. The most important representation so far is the International Slavery museum at the docks and black slave sculptures that are displayed around historical places in the city, which are only representations of past history and geography and not a total representation of the African culture in recent times. Ethnic minority consumers quest for cultural identity is perceived in the food culture of the group in concern. Commercial globalisation has renewed interest in the relationship between culture and traditional norms and values (James 1890). This pursuit for identity among most migrants to the western world is pronounced in their choice of food (Bauman2000). This research seeks to observe trends in African consumer behaviour and attitude toward African food in United Kingdom, using Liverpool as a case study. In trying to observe and evaluate these trends, certain issues have provided a background for this study, one of which is the re-materializing of postcolonial geographies as it affects Africans in a foreign country. African migrants attitude and food choice behaviour have been affected by certain factors, government and institutional policies of cutting across various levels of trading activities. In determining a consumers preference towards food related behaviours, convenience, as a food attribute, has been described as being as important as taste, health and price (Candel, 2001). However, the availability and accessibility of food influence consumers preference as different values are considered in understanding why consumers make certain food choice. Food choice is a complex phenomenon with many interacting events determining which foods are eaten by the individual at a particular time and place. (Shepherd 1989.) The failure of African foods to cross over into United Kingdom mainstream market has pointed to issues of production, preservation and transportation of African foods into the United Kingdom. International trade policies and barriers by OECD countries, farm subsidies have all been major setbacks to the availability of African food stuff in the United Kingdom. Chapter 1 literature review: theories of consumer perception, Chapter 2 how do Africans perceive African foods and other foods, what do Africans think about the origin of their food and the patriotic nature of Africans towards their food, the first experience of food, generational experience of food. Chapter 3 methodology: theories of research methods. Chapter 4 Chapter 5 result and discussions: background history of black Liverpool, map and population census 2001 of Africans in Liverpool, identifying African business and Questionnaires and interview analysis, Chapter 6 trade relations between African countries and UK CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW This literature review looks at the studies that have been done in areas of food preference as it concerns culture, food identity, food preference and quality. The second section will review theories employed in the research and the importance of global production networks. Catherine Dolan and John Humphrey (2000) used Global commodity chain as networks where the decision-maker influences the output of chains and composition governance in their paper ‘governance and trade in fresh vegetables. Their study does not recognise the identity of commodity and consumer as a factor in buyer driven commodity, evaluating the geography of space. This research explores the ethnic identity of consumer as a major actor in global commodity chain networks. The buyers themselves being of African nationality purchase food stuff from the local food store or African food restaurants which receive their supplies from importers of African foods in major cities like London and Manchester. The connection therefore is from the African farmers who grow the foods, to major exporter or importer as the case maybe, to the shelves food store and tables of the restaurant then consumed by Africans who live several miles away from their home country. The cultural identity of the co nsumers becomes a vital connection to the market, because consumers also make demand on the desired food choice. Consumers access to these foods becomes important to the continuity of this trade. Ben Fine (1993) defines commodity chains as â€Å"the commodity-specific chain connecting production, distribution, marketing and consumption and material culture surrounding these elements†, in the study of systems of provision (fine 1993:600). This approach acknowledges the importance of commodities as a possibility of more balanced treatment of the relationship between production and consumption (Crewe 2000). Studies have explored how networks of embedded firms are offering the potential for the more equitable relations between retailer and suppliers, through the sharing of knowledge as market intelligence and labour. (Crewe 1996, Scott 1996, Crewe and Beaverstock 1998). Other study have considered the creative dimension of domestic consumption, and the ways in which consumer good s are actively appropriated in the everyday spaces of the home, however, Domosh examines the reclamation of the home and the domestic space as key consumption site. But it does not take into account the origin of the commodities and how it relates to space for consumption (Domosh 1998). Cook and Crang, explore ways in which geographical knowledge about products invoke a â€Å"double commodity fetishism†. This is the idea in which consumer knowledge are limited by spatially distanciated systems of provision. (Laying emphasis on geographical knowledge about widely sources of food commodities and process through which food is supplied). This work highlights cultural means of places and spaces. Cook and Crang (1996), further explores the global extensive networks and flows of food, people and culinary knowledge embedded in cosmopolitan London. Suggesting that â€Å"cultural mosaic† (Friedman, 1994), conceptualise cultural geographies as bounded cultural regions where constructed associations between food, places and peoples, associations epitomising the conceptions of national, regional and local cuisines. Also describes food as emblems and markers of national, regional and local identities (Murcott 1995). Cook et al (1998), in seeking the articulation of the geographies of culture looks at how figure displacement can be used to suggest process of food consumption are cast as local, the connections of food consumption to networks, which extend beyond delimiting boundaries of particular places. Again, in a closely related study, Cook reflects on the biography and geographies of food. A definition of food as having their own biographies, studies the connection of consumer knowledge about the geographical origins of the food they consume and what roles it plays in food choice and consumption (Cook et al 1998). He concludes in a suggestion that knowledge can potentially be a significant factor in food choice and preference. Much research has been done on Caribbean foods within and outside United Kingdom, probably due to the influx of Caribbean foods into United Kingdom market in the mid 1990s, when it became the ethnic cuisine to go mainstream after the Chinese, Indian and Tex Mex (Cook et al 2003). The complex history of the Caribbeans produced a regional cuisine which had overlapped with the Indian and Chinese foods that were on top of international cuisines in the United Kingdom. The region had also become tourist centres to Europeans and a large interest of the Caribbean lifestyle and delicacies reflected on the shelves of UK supermarkets, in addition to the projected images by celebrity chefs, and companies who increased the exports to satisfy the demand of this market in the mid nineties (Cook et al 2003). This also reflected in Caribbean centres established in major cities and streets in the UK. Cook and Harrison examine debate over the failure of Caribbean food to cross over into the UK mainstream. The paper review mosaic and theories of culture as fundamental difference between a white â€Å"mainstream† and black â€Å"ethnic other† as part problems of this failure. (Cook and Harrison 2003). Understandings of postcolonial geographies of material culture and its contributions to the undermining of, and resistance to forms of colonial dominations that persist in contemporary global capitalist relationships as can be found in food trade relations between the ‘third world and the ‘west. The study uses the example of the corporate history of Grace, Kennedy and Co, a company that preferred to cater for the needs of UK ethnic minority and the third world consumers, instead of prioritising cross over in to UK mainstream market. Friedberg research of modern historical geography of food in Burkina Faso shows how agricultural policies, dietary preferences health concerns, helped to transform regional diet, landscape and economy, resulting to temporal and spatial patterns of daily life in Burkina Faso. The study observes the incorporation of Burkina Faso into the globalised market economy as a result of luxury food (French beans), not leaving out the expectation of food quality safety standards (Friedberg 2003). The study also observes the changing geographies of the meaning of food, suggesting how historical study of food consumption takes place outside formal market economy. Gaps in current research Studies on firms by management oriented researchers have been focused more on companies in developed economies, central and Eastern Europe, small and local food production firms in Africa and their business counterparts even in developed economies have received less attention in the study of economic development. Past researches remained outside social science mainstream therefore have not been influenced by general discourses especially in the field of economic geography. Feminist researchers who have done research in the developing world have only concentrated on gender-related issues in the developing nations rather than with broader questions of small, local and industrial organisations and economic development (Henderson et al 2002:437). The major issues of trade liberalization have affected the cross over of African food and with the increase of safety standard procedures by the UK govt. The challenges of small business and the cost of food as also other major issues that will be discussed. In examining the geographical knowledge about food, actors associated with food, which involves location and situatedness of food, the networks and flows of food and people are major debates around the accessibility of these foods. According to Cook et al the long-running history of interconnections between people and places; and the increasing consciousness of the compression of the economic, political, cultural world, and the production of the world as a single place are two major contentions of globalisation debates (Cook et al 1996). London is said to be promoted as a space of ‘global post-modern (Hall, 1991: 32) by the staging and reconstruction of cultural difference in ‘globalisation diversity (Pieterse, 1995:45 as cited Cook 1996), arguably, Liverpool being proclaimed as the ‘world in one city though with characteristic history of local culture is yet to produce a matching representation of modern diversity of the African culture with the exception of the In ternational Slavery museum. Post colonial issues around African cultural heritage in Liverpool will enhance globalisation diversity as represented in food, arts and cultural of the African food biography and origin. Global Production networks Global production networks emphasize the need to refocus attention on the social circumstances under which commodities are produced and consumed† (Dickens et al 2002 pg 444). It takes into account, the process of production-(can be from the farm stage, harvest, labour technology, processing in Africa, transportation, UK standardization, repackaging, supply and distribution,) which do not always follow a chain link but a complex network process, over time and space and distance to consumption. The GPN framework allows for a greater complexity and geographical variation in producer-consumer relation, this in turn enhances the ability to reveal how certain key knowledge ‘circulate between producers, consumers and intermediaries. It also reveals complex social geographies as agents located in different places can be seen to combine to influence the production process (Henderson et al 2002:445). In all, this research seeks to answer the following questions: †¢ Research Questions? To what extent does the demand of African food affect its availability? What impact does African food trade make on the supply of these foods? How have African food stores and restaurants faired with migration of Africans in Liverpool? Preference is described by Babicz-Zielinska as â€Å"a general predisposition for a particular food, independent of the eating situation, and expressed by degree of liking or disliking of the food, desired food frequency or fraction of subjects selecting the food as a response to its name†(Babicz-Zielinska 1999:139). The choice of food depends on factors that influence human behaviour, which in turn affects the rejection of some food and acceptance of others. A classification based on current food-choice models is used to explain certain attributes of food choice is made by Babicz-Zielinska (Babicz-Zielinska 1999:138) 1. Production-related factors- which could be physical and chemical properties of food, sensory attributes, functional features(labelling, availability) nutritional value; or 2. Consumer-related factors- personal features, (age, gender, psychological factors, experience, personality), physiological factors (health) or 3. Environment-related factors- economic factors (price and income), cultural factors (beliefs, social factors- social status and fashion. Consumer-related factors and environment-related factors will be area of concern in this research. Factors of food choice survey was conducted in European Community EC countries, and it showed that quality/freshness, taste, selecting a healthy diet, price, family preferences and habits belong to the most important choice factors, (Lennernas et al 1997) Behavioural research methodologies are usually used to ascertain the underlying factors that determine food-related behaviour, reason being that food choice and consumption are natural and integrated part of human behaviour (Mahon et al 2006:474). The theory of reasoned action The theory of reasoned action has received attention within the field of consumer behaviour. (Sheppard et al 1988). The theory of reasoned action studies attitude and behaviour (Ajzen Fishbein 1980). It observes behavioural intention, attitude and subjective norm. According to Fishbein and Ajzen, a persons behaviour is guided by the persons attitude towards the behaviour and the subjective norm. For example, Africans tend to eat hot, spicy and tasty food, so when they find themselves away from ‘home, they look for their regular food, or something very close to the kind of food they have been used to, the alternative in this case could mean the Caribbean cuisine which also has its origin from African foods, or the Spanish or Mexican spicy foods as found in UK. However the cost also plays a determining role in making food choice, this shall be explained in detail in later chapter. Miller 2005 defines attitude, subjective norm, and behavioural intentions as the 3 components of the theory of reasoned action. Attitude: The sum of beliefs about a particular behaviour weighted by evaluation of these beliefs. Subjective norms. This looks at the influence of people in ones social environment on his/her behavioural intentions. Behavioural intention. This is a function of both attitudes towards behaviour and subjective norms towards that behaviour which has been found to predict actual behaviour. The theory of planned behaviour is adopted to explain consumer behaviour towards African food. The other alternative in this research is the British food, considering different factors that affect the choice of food. Human behaviour is explained and predicted by the theory of planned behaviour in understanding beliefs and attitudes. Ajzen et al 1986, explains that TPB is an extension of the TRA. The theory of planned behaviour was developed as a third predictor of behaviour, perceived behavioural control, (Mahon et al 2006:475). Perceived behavioural control reflects beliefs regarding the access to resources and opportunities needed to perform a behaviour (Chiou, 1998 as cited in Mahon 2006 pg 475). The availability of resources needed to engage in the behaviour such as money, time and other resources, the focal person self confidence in their ability to conduct the behaviour are two major reflections of the theory of planned behaviour. The theory of consumer preference. Consumers have set of preferences which are dependent upon individual tastes, education, culture and other factors, apart from the economic factor. These factors are measured for particular goods in terms of the real opportunity cost to the consumer who purchases and consumes the goods. Consumer level of satisfaction of a particular kind of food is determined by what the consumer defines as â€Å"satisfaction†. However, consumers are constrained in their choices of foods by income, accessibility of goods and also the price that the consumer is willing to pay for his food. Consumer preferences are defined as the subjective taste as measured by utility-(where utility is the satisfaction that a consumer derives from the consumption of a good) of various bundles of goods. Preferences help consumer to prioritize bundles of goods according to the levels of utility that they give the consumer. However, these preferences are not dependent on income and prices only. The ability for a consumer to purchase certain kind of food does not always determine a consumers like or dislike over another food. For example, an African consumer in Liverpool can have a preference for African foods over British foods but only has the financial means to buy British meals more often. There are certain assumptions of consumers preference theory, which will be further looked into, the assumption of decisiveness, consistency, non-satiation, convexity. Actor network theory. ANT, a social theory pioneered by Michel Callon (1986), Bruno Latour (1987) and John Law (1987), conceptualize social interactions in terms of networks. This includes the material environment and human causes. The concept of ANT acknowledges the importance of both material and human factors in networks. The theory conveys the idea that the actor does not act ‘on his own but only under the influence of complex network of material and human influences. For example, the process involved in making African foods available is not just caused human factors, but also by production, technology, society, extended politics of trade and culture, all affecting the accessibility and availability of the foods. According to Callon (1986) materials causes as well as human actors may be determinants of the social interactions and outcomes (Callon 1986). According to Henderson 2002, ANT emphasize the relationality of object and agency in heterogeneous networks, in other words, entities in network s are shaped by and can only be understood through their relations and connectivity to other entities(Law, 1999:4 as cited in Henderson et al 2002). Again, space and distance are observed as ‘spatial fields and relational scopes of influence, power and connectivity (Harvey, 1969; Murdoch 1998 as cited in Henderson et al 2002). According to Nancy Vanhouse, ANT has to approaches, ‘follow the actor, through interviews and ethnographic research and through examining inscriptions. Inscriptions including texts, but also images of many sorts, databases, and the like are central to knowledge work. Some (e.g., Latour and Woolgar, 1991; Callon, Law, and Rip, 1986) say that texts (including journal articles, conference papers and presentations, grant proposals, and patents) are among the major, if not the major, products of scientific work. Inscriptions make action at a distance possible by stabilizing work in such a way that it can travel across space and time and be combined with other work. Texts are also central to the process of gaining credibility. They carry work to other people and institutions. They attempt to present work in such a way that its meaning and significance are irrefutable. And texts are where authors establish equivalences among problems, which Callon et al. (1986) identifies as a major strategy of enrolling others. An important part of the standard journal article or grant application, for example, is to say, in essence, If you are interested in X (major issue) you must be interested in Y, which is the topic of the work reported/proposed here. References Latour, B. and Woolgar, S. (1991). Laboratory life: the construction of scientific facts, intro by Salk, J., Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press Callon, Michel, John Law, and Arie Rip, eds. Mapping the Dynamics of Science and Technology: Sociology of Science in the Real World. London: Macmillan Press, 1986. Actor network theory has become very helpful in understanding connections between places and space. Its insistency on non human factor in network production Supply chain and bottleneck bureaucracy of the supply of food products from Africa into the UK makes it more difficult for the availability of this food. This furthermore widens the distance/gap between consumers and suppliers/retailers. The length of this chain affects. The quality assurance schemes, production and manufacturing to retailers protocols and the application of quality management system and standard such as HACCP and ISO series are various ways of cutting supplies. Bottlenecks of food quality and safety standards in food processing and distribution. The HACCP systems are used in specific export sectors in Africa, an example is the EU quality standard for fish in Uganda is based on EU directive 91/493/EEC and on Codex Alimentarius (Trienekens et al 2008:116) covering areas of microbiology level, pesticides residues, heavy metals, effluents, Good manufacturing practices (processing stage) and HACCP (processing stage) (Ssemwanga, 2003 as cited in Trienekens et al 2008:116). Kenya adheres to UK food and safety Act of 1990, more so testing laboratories are accredited to ISO 17025; 2000 by United Kingdom Accreditation services (UKAS) (Kari 2003), the high deportation rate of this products on western markets shows the fragility of the systems. As pesticides residues are discovered in the product. Other systems used for processors and packers of fish for exports are GMP, ISO 90002. The proliferation of standards by western markets creates a barrier for the application of standards by developing countries producers. The lack of enabling environment in which infrastructure facilities are absent in African countries is also a major setback. African countries are still discovering quality and safety of food as important condition for international food trade (Trieneken et al 2008:117). Building of facilities, government structures to improve and ensure quality and safety of products are still key agenda of attention. The importance of transportation, preservation (cooled system of transport) and storage are very vital to international trade. African countries are still at the phase of establishing the right conditions to enforce food quality and safety of the other products. According to Trieneken et al- many developing countries do not have skilled labour and laboratory facilities, this however limits good- quality management, making difficult. Small and medium size business, from developing countries find difficult or almost impossible to comply with standard required in western markets (Dinham, 2003, Unnevehr, 2002). Due to barriers created by SPS and TBT in exporting foods, from developing countries do not have the adequate information and most likely unaware of specific demand of western standards for trade. The heterogeneous standard in developed economies also poses a problem, as continues differ to country and market also differ. The cost of certification is too much for develop countries to bear. Most African food products are unable to adapt to the rigorous requirements of modern supply chain, either through scale enterprise or lack of knowledge or financial constraints, become non-competitive. The myriad of innovations and development has made the process of food supply chain increase in productivity. The combine technology of accurate weighing, refrigeration controlled atmospheric bacterial growth inhibition, pasteurisation, micro-element pollutant detection, bar-coding, electronic recognition of packaging, the use of stabilizers etc, has also contributed to the difficulty in having African food cross over, as most business may not be financially equipped enough for the volume of the trading. Christopher (1999) notes that the supply chain management evolves around the partnership developed in the chain and is supported by information technology applications that co-ordinate information dissemination and sharing amongst the chain members. This research has revealed that most home cooked food are prepared under high hygienic conditions, as cooking is monitored by consumer themselves problems with calories consumptions that affect the health of consumer is also under check, compared to the perceptions about eating fast food at convenience KFC and MacDonalds. This is one reason for the preference of African food among black consumer. One of the major problems of availability of African foods in UK is the problem of access into the country. Developing countries especially in Africa find it difficult to meet the food safety standards imposed by the UK/developing countries. Food safety standards which were originally set up to keep food for quality and safe consumption, by government of different countries are being used as trade impeding protectionist tools.(Jongwanich 2009:1). Food safety standards are usually to the disadvantage of developing countries, due to their limits capacity to access and use technology and information. International trade negotiations have experience setbacks for developing countries in recent years due to a demand for more stringent SPS in developed countries, which is as a result of increase in health consciousness and rising incomes. Before now, tariffs and quantitative restrictions are the trade barriers and impediments that affect export from developing countries to developed countri es, but in recent times, food safety standards have become tool for protectionist to block trade(Jongwanich 2009:

The Employment And Reintegration For Registered Sex Offenders Criminology Essay

The Employment And Reintegration For Registered Sex Offenders Criminology Essay Employment and reintegration into the community for registered sex offenders is a daunting challenge due to victim access concerns, employment restrictions, reluctance from potential employers because of the stigma, housing and transportation problems. These are critical barriers that exacerbate finding employment. Instability in the above areas has also been correlated with recidivism. In order to secure safety and successful reintegration of sex offenders into the community, collaboration between the prison system and community partners are needed to facilitate vocational and career training to develop, improve and enhance sex offenders job skills and competencies to prepare them for reentry into society and the workforce (Center for sex offender management). What are Perceived Barriers to Employment Vocational Opportunities for Registered Sex Offenders? Many offenders will be released from state and federal institutions with many challenges and barriers to come when they enter and/or reenter the workforce. The barriers will not only be at an individual level, it will be at a social, environmental, and economical level. There are limited resources available to aide in the transition of offenders, even more so for individuals who are registered sex offenders. Sustainable employment is critical to the success of an ex-offenders avoiding re-offending. Vocational guidance an assistance programs that include financial assistance and follow-up services have been shown to be very effective in not only keeping the community safe but also decreasing the numbers of offenders re-offending and improving the number of offenders finding gainful employment (Harrison Schehr, 2004). The need for additional vocational and career training programs to develop job skills and competencies for ex-offenders is an immense necessity. There is limited researc h on the specific issues that ex-offenders face while attempting to reintegrate into the legitimate workforce and the lack of career development focus on the specific needs of this population (Shivy, Wu, Moon Mann, 2007). Ex-offenders are generally released to the community on conditional and unconditional terms. Ex-offenders that are granted conditional terms are a form of supervision that is mandated by the courts and is managed through a probation or parole officer (Shivy, et. al. 2007). Conditional release can include restrictions and rules such as curfews, drug testing, and the requirement to search for, obtain, and keep a job (Shivy, et., al. 2007). McDonough Burrell (2008) suggest the traditional approach to offender employment has been passive on the behalf of the parole/probation officers (PO). The training of PO as employment specialist has also promoted the change in the probation philosophy including physical changes in probation agencies replacing sports and general interest magazines with employment related reading materials and posters (McDonough Burrell, 2007). Parole agencies play a critical role in the supervision of ex-prisoners and the reduction of recidivism rates (Rakis, 2005). Preliminary results of this study are promising. In addition, probation staffs are required to assess risk of sex-offenders and ex-offenders in employment. POs are launched in an array of different job duties that include assessing if certain jobs are suitable or not suitable not based on level of knowledge, skills, and/or interest or abilities of offenders but monitoring sex offenders and offenders in their work related activities to ensure they do not have opportunities to reoffend. These opportunities to reoffend include taking in consideration the type of job, co-workers, and location of employer, work hours and travel routes needed to get to job sites (Brown, Deakin Spencer, 2005). There are well-funded and comprehensive programs like Accelerated Community Entry Program (ACE) aimed at preparing offenders for community reentry, successfully focusing on the many barriers faced by offenders when released however barriers such as housing, community reactions, self-support and cos t threatens long-term success of programs such as ACE (Knollenberg Martin, 2008). In addition, some conditional released programs are well-funded and have a comprehensive and focused on deterring re-offense but similar to ACE program face significant barriers in housing, community reactions (Arkowitz, Shale Carabello, 2008). Barriers are not just limited to the sex offenders and ex-offenders but also programs that are set out to help in the process of reintegration into the community. The termed phrase to encompass the process of inmates transitioning from correctional institutions to the community is prisoner reentry (Shivy, et. al. 2007). This construct has gained valuable curiosity with policymakers acknowledging prominent disadvantages and challenges of the reintegration process that include substance abuse, physical and mental health, employability and workforce participation, housing and the interrelationships among these challenges for ex-offenders (Shivy, et., al. 2007). Harrison Schehr (2004) reported that upon release from prison ex-offenders receive an average of $69 from the state department of correction, or between $100-$500 from the Federal Bureau of Prisons to aid in their transition back into their communities. Although, this may seem like a substantial amount of money to help in the process but this is very minuscule to an individual who has no family or support network to depend on and to rely on this money until a job is obtained may be fright ening for an ex-offender. As offenders search for legitimate work opportunities, they deal with the stigma attached to a criminal record and being a registered sex offender and legally enforced employment restrictions barring them from working in several occupations (Harrison Schehr, 2004). In addition, most states and federal government prohibit ex-offenders from accessing public aid funds or financial assistance for school. It appears that society continues to further punish offenders for a crime they have paid their debt to society by serving their time. However, when returning to the community the system remains to oppress and disadvantage these individuals. Invisible punishments embedded within existing policies will continue to further oppress without modifications of these policies the ability of reentry services to foster behavioral health and community reintegration is limited (Pogorselski, Wolff, Pan Blitz, 2005). Many released inmates are forced to return to isolated, impoverished communities where few jobs opportunities exist (Harrison Schehr, 2004). According to the Reentry Policy Council, ex-offenders face barriers at an individual and community level that hinders efforts to secure and maintain employment. Barriers are mainly due to ex-offenders returning to communities that have limited amount of available jobs due to the low-income, disadvantaged communities which provide few contacts to legitimate work, weak networks and contacts. In addition, the stigma of having a criminal record exacerbates employability and earning capabilities because of limited education, low skill levels and physical, mental and drug problems (Reentry Policy Council). In addition, Bergman Chalkley (2007) address a new aspect of stigma to include dirty work which are tasks, jobs, or occupations that most members of society would rather not personally perform because the work, or people or setting associated with it, is viewed by society as repugnant, revolting, or debasing. Dirty work is potentially stigmatizing to people who either currently or formerly performed duties and are judged negatively because of the job, in which they may had only qualified for and/or met the standards due to location, education and criminal history. Most employers are reluctant and hesitant to hire ex-offenders, especially sex offenders. There state and federal laws that prohibit individuals with certain convictions to work in certain occupations (Reentry Policy Council). Employers fear taking a risk of hiring an ex-offender since they can be held legally liable for certain crimes if committed by an employee of their own. Brown and colleagues (2005) purports that American employers are more negative about employing ex-offenders but become more positive if offenders increased their education while incarcerated compared to Britain which are fairly positive in considering individuals with criminal records depending on size and industry type. Research has suggested that there is a hierarchy of offenses, suggesting there is a greater likelihood that employers would employ offenders of some offense categories rather than others with sex offenses being the most serious and judged the must negatively by employers with employers not at a ll likely to employ (Brown, et.al. 2005). One of the most challenging of barriers to employment for ex-offenders is the criminal record in which they are responsible for disclosing to potential employers and offenders being cognizant that they will not be judged on experience, skills or abilities but the criminal record. Even if the offender is not honest about their criminal history, legislation allows employers to seek disclosure from the criminal record bureau to any convictions an employee or potential employee may have. There are common characteristics that have been identified that reduce employability which include low literacy rate, school drop-outs, no qualifications, alcohol, drug and health problems and accommodation requirements (Brown et. al., 2005). Career services offered by the correctional systems throughout the United States have been vocational in nature providing skills training in prison industry jobs that can be held during incarceration which reduce operating cost of the prison by inmates supplying many of the services (Shivy, et. al., 2007). Educational training is provided to offenders to earn a general education degree. Employment training services that are provided in prisons focus on basic career-related activities such as resume writing, interviewing, and workplace relationship skills (Shivy, et. a., 2007). The correctional system efforts are being put into ex-offenders finding a job after release but not on the awareness of their career interests, needs/values, and abilities and suitability of jobs for offenders (Shivy, et. al., 2007). Correspondingly, Basile (2005) suggest that sex offenders and ex-offenders lack education and vocational skills, however, the focus need to be on treating and rehabilitating these individuals holistically at the point of entry and release to foster success in the transition into the community. Bouffard, Mackenzie Hickman (2000) found in their examination of effectiveness of vocational education and employment programs in reducing recidivism of the adult correctional population: are vocational education programs, multi-component correctional industry programs, and community programs have been shown to work and be effective in reducing recidivism. Graffam, Shinkfield, Lavelle McPherson (2004) conducted a study examining six domains influencing reintegration of ex-offenders including personal conditions, justice system, rehabilitation and counseling support, and employment and training support. Participants were asked to identify variables within each domain that affect success or failure of offenders in making a positive life transition. The results identified variables included a readiness to change, achieving stable housing and obtaining employment, avoidin g illegal activity and complying with mandatory reporting, remaining free of dependency, and addressing basic education and training needs. Shivy and colleagues (2007) found similar results, that the role of social networks was very important to ex-offenders. Suggesting that finding and keeping a supportive social network is highly correlated with ex-offenders finding and keeping a job and the possibility of the workplace offering opportunities for social support network. Many ex-offenders may lack social skills and confidence may also approach social situations with considerable amount of anxiety coupled with the impact of the stigma associated with being an ex-offender. The environmental factors that ex-offenders are encountering such as limited job opportunities are addressed in Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT). This theory acknowledges that career development can be made difficult by environmental influences such as differential socialization processes and opportunities as well as internalization of these influences (Chartrand Rose, 1996). It is important to understand some ex-offenders may have confidence in their own ability to accomplish a career task but believe that their efforts will not be rewarded because of external forces such as discrimination. SCCT purports that when opportunities are limited, the direct effects of self-efficacy and outcome beliefs on choice actions will be stronger than their indirect effects through interests and goals (Chartrand Rose, 1996). When working with ex-offenders the need to understand their beliefs about opportunities may be primary and interest exploration and goal setting is secondary (Chartrand Rose, 1996). Chartrand Rose (1996) suggest that the impact of sociocultural and economic factors is important but it is imperative that counselors are cognizant that at-risk populations view work as a source of income rather than a source of self-realization. However, professionals should be careful to not over generalize or assume that these individuals experiencing many barriers and hardships ;do not want or need career development services the demand for immediate employment is primary but work experience serves as a source of positive identity and stepping stones to future career opportunities (Chartran Rose, 1996). The offender population has not been highly considered by the counseling profession in the design and the delivery of career development interventions (Shivy, et. al. 2007). The expertise of counseling psychologist in career development and transition in personal and work related adjustment appears to be a good fit to tap into work with the diverse ex-offender population (Shivy and colleagues, 2007). Methods Participants 50 male registered sex offenders from each state will be recruited from National Probation offices across the United States. All males will be 18 years of age and up of all ethnicities. All males will be convicted of a state sex crime including individuals that have assaulted children and adults. The registered sex offenders will be on parole/probation and being supervised while living in the community. All participants will have been released from prison/jail for 6 months and have not violated and/or reoffended since their release date. Participation in this study will fully be voluntary and will be explained that participation in this study will not in any shape or form help with any court dates, sentencing and/or leniency in their current parole/probation. Materials All registered sex offenders will complete a demographic information sheet which will include questions about age, race, education, sex offense, current and past employment and etc. Participants will be interviewed utilizing a semi-structured interview that will ask questions about their experience, barriers to work and their vocational opportunities, attitudes and perceptions of employment. In addition, questions about self-efficacy, interest, abilities, health and disabilities. All interviews will be tape recorded. Procedure Participants will be contacted by principle researcher to invite sex offenders to participate in study. All information of sex offenders will be provided by participating probation officers and agencies. The study will fully be explained to all offenders, where the offenders will agree or disagree to participate in the study. Researcher will then schedule a time to meet or be contacted via phone. All informed consent forms will be completed before any participation in the study. For individuals who opt for the phone contact interview, informed consent will need to be mailed or faxed before scheduled appointment. The interviews will last between 45 to 60 minutes each. The interviews will be conducted on a semi-structured basis and will be recorded. The purpose and goal of this study will be clearly explained. All interviews will be transcribed by trained research assistants. All assistants will be trained on administering semi-structured interviews, demographic information sheet and trained on transcribing. Each state will have 10 trained student research assistants that will recruit and administer interviews over a timeline of 1 to 3 years. In addition, all research assistants will be trained on qualitative research and coding. Each site will transcribe interviews and code interviews for developing themes and patterns. Each site will have a lead researcher/investigator that will oversee each research site. After all data has been collected, coded and transcribed lead researchers will meet and collaborate with fellow lead researchers from other recruitment sites across the country. Lead resea rchers will meet to examine data and develop final themes and patterns of data where inter-rater reliability can be conducted to confirm themes and patterns for manuscript writing. Analysis The analysis to be utilized for this qualitative study will be Phenomenological/hermeneutics approach. This approach was selected based on the descriptive, interpretative nature of this study setting out to understand the perceived barriers of registered sex offenders in their journey to reintegrate back into the community and workforce and create meaning of the these lived experiences of sex offenders through semi-structured interviews (Ryan, Coughlan Cronin, 2007). Initially, the data will be openly read without focusing on the research question in order to understand the participants expression and meaning in the broadest context. Secondly, researchers will differentiate the parts of the description meaning units. Themes will be identified to organize the data. Attitude is a big component in the phenomenological approach; attitude will be expected to be considered for all research assistants participating in the data analysis (Wertz, 2005). Attitude will assist research assistants in fully submerging themselves in the written description for reflection on meaning and experiential processes (Ryan et. al. 2007). Through examination of the transcribed interviews, research assistants will be able to look for features that can be identified as general, to verify the broader applicability of the insight and knowledge from interview to interview. This process will render common meaning, general constituents, themes, psychological processes and organi zational features (Ryan, et. al. 2007).

Sports History and Sports Halls of Fame :: Sports

Sports History and Sports Halls of Fame Below are websites dealing with sports history, particularly those halls of fame which exist. In the dead of winter, many people's interest turn to sports, and the nominees and inductees are announced for many halls, including professional baseball and professional football. Professional Baseball Hall of Fame http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/ This website discusses the National Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York. The site combines baseball history and the Hall of Fame itself. The rotating exhibits at the museum are prominently featured, along with the members of the Hall. The site also discusses the rules for induction. Among the items available for the Hall of Fame members are their lifetime statistics, their biographies, pictures of their plaques, and desktop wallpaper. For those interested in analyzing the history of baseball elections, the results of the past votes are available. An online catalog of the museum's holdings is accessible here. The baseball history here is good, if sometimes not overly evaluative. The exhibits at the museum are also portrayed, and among the current exhibits are one on Ichiro Suzuki and another on Sports Illustrated. Information about visits is here as well. Basketball Hall of Fame http://www.hoophall.com/ This hall of fame (located in Springfield, Massachusetts), unlike baseball and football's hall of fames, represents all of basketball in one hall. (The other halls have separate halls for college and professional). Among the items on the site are information about the Hall of Famers, running from James Naismith, who invented basketball, to Medowlark Lemon, to Phog Allen, to Lynette Woodward. Five whole teams are also honored as members, including the Harlem Globetrotters, the New York Rens and the Buffalo Germans. Three people, Lenny Wilkens, Bill Sharman and John Wooden, are honored both as players and as coaches. The history here, outside of the hall, is generally good if not extensive and includes interesting sections on the original rules of basketball and the story of how the Hall of Fame was founded. Pro Football Hall of Fame http://www.profootballhof.com/ This hall of fame, located in Canton, Ohio, honors the game of pro football. The site includes information about visiting the hall, the history of the hall, and the hall of famers. Like most other halls, it lists the inductees, provides short biographies of them, and details the induction process. Information about this year's class is featured prominently, as the finalists were just announced. History of the NFL is provided, although it is not featured prominently.

Under Age Drinking : The Problems It Creates :: Teenage Drinking

Under Age Drinking : The Problems It Creates   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It's a Saturday night, and the bars are packed. People are inside having a few, or more than a few, drinks. A select few are really drunk or passed out. Now lets step outside and take a look at a different type of drinking, drinking at an early age. High school and junior high kids are at a party drinking. Like the adults, some are just having a few, but quite a few are having more than that and are stumbling around.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These kids have been given the idea that drinking is something that adults do, and we all know that kids can't wait to be grown up. Thus, they drink, figuring that if they can at least do what adults do then they will be grown up, in a way. This is how our society works. Enough with the philosophy of it. Now I would like to talk about the effects that early age drinking can have on a person. I grew up in a town that has the most bars per capata in the state of Montana and is in the top ten in the United States. This has a huge effect on under age drinkers. The bars card at the door and as long as your 18 your in. And since the bouncers will stamp nearly anyone they know or like the number of kids is always high. It dosn't help that Dillon is a college town and ther are many under age college kids there. Now lets imagine another party where kids are drinking. The bonfire is roaring, Bubba just decided that singeing everyone's eyebrows off by throwing some gasoline on the fire would be fun. Of course nobody thought that this was very funny except for Bubba. Bubba is not the only teenage person at this party who has had a few to many. There are a lot of under age kids who are just plain drunk. This is a regular kind of party in my hometown, everyone goes out and drinks to get drunk. The sad thing is, that these kind of parties happen a lot of time twice a week expecially during the spring. All this partying catches up with these young peolpe. They don't get jobs because they are too tired from partying all night or all weekend long. Thier grades start slipping. The worst effect, however has to be the addiction to alcohol. I've seen freshman who drink all the time because they feel they can't live without their alcohol. Of course you have to realize that this is a